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Writer's pictureKe'Von Singleton

The Conscience of the Civil Rights Movement (1945-1970): An Exploration of The Black Social Gospel

Updated: May 5, 2023


The Black Social Gospel is a religious and social movement that emerged among African American churches in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It emphasized the social teachings of Christianity and aimed to apply those teachings to social justice issues, particularly in the context of racial inequality and discrimination. The Black Social Gospel movement has been influenced by several factors, including the social gospel movement among white Protestants, the labor movement's rise, and African Americans' experience in the post-Reconstruction era. It was also shaped by the leadership of prominent African American religious figures such as Reverend Richard Allen, Howard Thurman, Dr. James Cone, and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. The Black Social Gospel emphasized the importance of collective action and social change through political activism and community organizing. It sought to address issues such as poverty, segregation, and discrimination, promoting the idea of a "beloved community" that transcended race and class. Grace Tatter, a freelance journalist, writes, “Beloved community: a community in which everyone is cared for, absent of poverty, hunger, and hate. Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. popularized the term during his lifetime of activism and imbued it with new meaning, fueled by his faith that such a community was, in fact, possible. But he always acknowledged that realizing his vision would involve systems of law, education, infrastructure, health care, and municipal reform — no one sector, much less one person, could create it in isolation.” The Black Social Gospel has significantly impacted the civil rights movement and other social justice movements in the United States. The effects of the movement are still prevalent today and can be seen in the form of politics rather than protest.
Short History of the Civil Rights Movement
African Americans made significant social advancements during Reconstruction. During the Reconstruction era, Hiram Revels was elected as the first African American senator. Other influential figures include former U.S. Representatives Robert B. Elliott, Robert DeLarge, and Joseph Rainey of South Carolina; Benjamin Turner of Alabama; Josiah Walls of Florida; and Jefferson Long of Georgia. African Americans who were running for office aimed to change the law to benefit all African Americans.
In 1868, the United States passed the 14th Amendment, which stated, "All persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." It was followed by the 15th Amendment in 1870, which stated, "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." The passing of these laws made White southerners furious. White southerners, especially the poor southerners, felt that America was helping those who did not deserve it, and to those struggling, it felt like a slap in the face. Many racist white politicians agreed and used this tactic to invoke white terror on African Americans in the South.
In the American South, "Jim Crow" laws were implemented at the start of the late 19th century. These laws were created in direct response to African Americans' advancement in the American South during the Reconstruction era. Following Reconstruction, the introduction of Jim Crow laws led to a marked decline in the social status of African Americans. The inability of African Americans to use the same facilities as white people was evident in a variety of ways, including housing discrimination and educational segregation. In Plessy v. Ferguson, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in 1896 that white Americans and African Americans could use institutions and facilities that were "separate but equal." Due to the new requirement that voters pass a literacy test, African Americans could no longer register to vote or run for office. According to Michelle Alexander's account in The New Jim Crow, "During the Jim Crow era, poll taxes and literacy tests kept the African-Americans from polls."
The Niagara Movement was started in 1905 by black activists under the direction of W. E. B. Du Bois and William Monroe Trotter, a black newspaper editor from Boston, Massachusetts. The Niagara Movement sought to create a "mighty current" of change and disagreed with Booker T. Washington's viewpoints. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) emerged from the group. The NAACP started a campaign in 1913 to oppose Woodrow Wilson, the president at the time, who supported and implemented racial segregation in the federal government. By 1914, the NAACP had 6,000 members and more than 50 branches. The NAACP gained momentum and launched a widespread protest in response to the 1915 silent film The Birth of a Nation, which portrayed African Americans as barbarians, rapists, and ignorant people and sparked and incited a rise in violence from the Ku Klux Klan.
Following World War II, millions of American soldiers returned home to the United
States transformed into an industrial powerhouse and significant world power. President Roosevelt's campaign promise to treat veterans with compassion following the end of World War II would be realized in the form of the Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944. This unprecedented legislation catalyzed unparalleled shifts in the American educational and economic landscape. However, a catastrophic yet influential tragedy was hidden in one of America's most significant political triumphs. The disparity in the opportunities available from the same GI Bill legislation to black and white veterans has had unforeseen consequences throughout American history and, in many ways, facilitated the historical expansion of the racial wealth gap in America.
In 1954, the United States Supreme Court unanimously ruled that segregation in public
schools violated the 14th Amendment. Justice Earl Warren stated, "We conclude that, in the field
of public education, the doctrine of "separate but equal" has no place. Separate educational
facilities are inherently unequal."
In 1955, the then-struggling Civil Rights Movement was struck with fire when a 14-year-old African American boy was lynched in Money, Mississippi. Emmett Till, a black boy from Chicago, Illinois, was visiting his family in Mississippi for a summer vacation when he allegedly flirted and whistled at a white woman, Carolyn Bryant. For Till, this unwritten rule was known to him in the "Jim Crow" South. Several nights after the alleged incident, Roy Bryant (Carolyn's husband) and his brother J.W. Milam arrived at Till's uncle's home and took him in the middle of the night. The two men beat and tortured Till. He was beaten, had his eyes gouged out, and then shot in the head. Till's body was sunk in the Tallahatchie River with a cotton gin fan with barbed wire tied to attached to his body. Mamie Till, Emmett Tills' mother, could only identify her son due to the ring he wore around his finger. Mamie Till insisted that an open casket public funeral be held so the world could be exposed to what was done to her son. Till served as a catalyst for the movement and inspired millions of African Americans to begin marching, and gave the stagnant Civil Rights Movement the moment it needed to push forward. The two men were later found not guilty but later admitted in a magazine to the murder of Till.
Inspired by the murder of Emmett Till, Rosa Parks, on December 1st, 1955, in
Montgomery, Alabama, refused to give her seat to a white man. The segregation laws stated that African American passengers must sit in the section designated for them in the back of the bus. Parks, in turn, did follow that. However, when the man got on the bus, all of the seats in the white section were taken, and the bus driver demanded that Parks move and give up her seat to a white man. Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat and was ultimately arrested. Parks is known as both the "Mother of the Civil Rights Movement" and "First Lady of the Civil Rights Movement."
Following the arrest of Rosa Parks, the black citizens of Montgomery were furious. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) called for a one-day
boycott of the Montgomery Bus system and achieved tremendous success. Fueled by the citizens four days later, a local black minister, Martin Luther King, Jr., and other community members and leaders started the Montgomery Improvement Association. Excited by the success of the one-day boycott, King urged for the continuation of the boycott. On November 13th, 1956, the United States Supreme Court ruled that the segregated seating arrangement was unconstitutional. The boycott lasted 382 days and served as one of the biggest and most successful mass demonstrations of civil rights.
Three years following the 1954 United States Supreme Court ruling that segregation in
public schools violated the 14th Amendment. On the morning of September 3rd, 1957, Nine black students in Little Rock, Arkansas, Melba Pattillo Beals, Minnijean Brown, Elizabeth Eckford, Ernest Green, Gloria Ray Karlmark, Carlotta Walls LaNier, Thelma Mothershed, Terrence Roberts, and Jefferson Thomas, attempted to integrate an all-white school, Central High School. The students arrived and were met by a mob of white protestors and the Arkansas National Guard. Orval E. Faubus, Governor of Arkansas, stated, "The Supreme Court shut its eyes to all the facts, and in essence said—integration at any price, even if it means the destruction of our school system, our educational processes, and the risk of disorder and violence that could result in the loss of life—perhaps yours. This price, you as a people are unwilling to pay." After weeks of civil unrest, President Eisenhower invoked the Insurrection Act of 1807, which allowed federal law enforcement to act as civil law enforcement; this allowed for the students to walk into Central High School with armed escorts. Following the initial events in Little Rock, President Eisenhower signed the Civil Rights Act of 1957, which allowed federal officials the right to prosecute individuals that attempted and did prevent others from voting.
On February 1st, 1960, four black students who attended North Carolina A & T College in Greensboro, North Carolina, decided to hold a protest against the segregation at a Woolworth's
lunch counter. The students held a sit-in and refused to leave their seats at the counter despite being refused service. This new tactic of protest caught on, and students everywhere participated. Friendship Junior College students and others boycotted McCrory's on Main Street in Rock Hill On January 31, 1961, in an effort to draw attention to the restaurant's segregated lunch counters. When they entered, they sat down at the counter and placed orders for hamburgers, soda, and coffee. The students were told to leave after being denied service. They were arrested when they didn't. Ten people were found guilty of trespassing and breach of the peace the following day and given a 30-day jail sentence or a $100 fine. Eight of the nine men, who were Friendship students, chose to accept the sentence of 30 days of hard labor at the York County Prison Farm, while one paid a fine. Their decision to go to jail rather than pay a fine or post bail was a first in the civil rights movement, and it gave rise to the "jail, no bail" strategy that was later imitated elsewhere. The sit-ins and marches that took place in Rock Hill throughout the spring and into the summer attracted an increasing number of participants.
The Early Black Social Gospel
In 1816, African American Minister Richard Allen founded the African Methodist Episcopal church. Allen started preaching at nearby plantations. Allen eventually made enough money to purchase his freedom and became a Methodist preacher. Allen began giving sermons at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania's St. George Methodist Episcopal Church in 1786. Allen was required to deliver his sermons in the early hours at St. George because he drew a significant African American following. The African Methodist Episcopal Church was founded by Allen and his congregation after they endured numerous racial events. Allen is recognized as having laid the groundwork for black Christianity. Allen fought for the abolition of slavery in a different way than other black northerners. Allen preached Christianity as a weapon to access white Americans' feelings against slavery using biblical evidence.
In 1830, David Walker wrote, To the Coloured Citizens of the World, but in Particular, and Very Expressly, to Those of the United States of America. In his Appeal, Walker used the same oppressing religion to challenge the humanity of slavery. Walker continues to make his case by referencing the narrative of Joseph and the Pharaoh. Because his brothers were jealous, Joseph grew sold into slavery. After being sold, he would assist the Pharaoh's guards in understanding their dreams, and ultimately, he would assist the Pharaoh when his wise men could not interpret his dreams. Joseph was promoted for his service and eventually took over as the land's king.
Liberation in the Bible
The concept of liberation is an essential theme in the Bible. Liberation refers to the act of setting someone free from oppression or slavery. The Bible tells numerous stories of liberation, from the Israelites' liberation from Egypt to Jesus' liberation of the oppressed. The Bible presents liberation as a central theme that underscores God's love for humanity and His desire to see all people free.
One of the most prominent examples of liberation in the Bible is the story of Exodus. The Israelites had been living as slaves in Egypt for over 400 years when Moses was called by God to lead them out of slavery. God liberated the Israelites from their bondage in Egypt through a series of miraculous events, including the ten plagues, the parting of the Red Sea, and the provision of manna in the wilderness. The story of Exodus serves as a powerful reminder of God's faithfulness and His desire to see His people free from oppression.
Throughout the Old Testament, numerous prophets speak out against oppression and call for liberation. Isaiah, for example, prophesied about the coming of a Messiah who would bring liberation to the oppressed: "The Spirit of the Sovereign Lord is on me because the Lord has anointed me to proclaim good news to the poor. He has sent me to bind up the brokenhearted, to proclaim freedom for the captives and release from darkness for the prisoners." Isaiah's prophecy speaks of the Messiah as a liberator who would bring freedom to those who were oppressed and enslaved. This theme of liberation is echoed throughout the Old Testament, with other prophets such as Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Amos calling for justice and freedom for the oppressed.
In the New Testament, we see Jesus as the ultimate liberator. He came to earth to set people free from sin and death and to bring them into a new life of freedom and joy. Jesus' ministry was marked by His compassion for the marginalized and oppressed, and He worked tirelessly to bring healing and liberation to those in need. One of the most powerful examples of Jesus' liberating work is His encounter with the woman caught in adultery. This woman was caught in a sin that was punishable by death, yet Jesus showed her compassion and forgiveness, setting her free from the condemnation of the religious leaders who sought to condemn her. Jesus' actions in this story demonstrate His desire to free people from the burdens of shame and guilt and offer them a new life of freedom and hope. Another example of Jesus' liberating work is His healing of the blind man in John. This man had been blind from birth, but Jesus healed him, giving him not only physical sight but also spiritual insight into who Jesus was. Jesus' healing work in this story represents His desire to set people free from physical and spiritual blindness and to offer them a new life of clarity and understanding. The book of Acts shows the apostles continuing Jesus' liberating work. Peter, for example, heals a disabled beggar in the name of Jesus, setting him free from a life of poverty and dependence. Paul, likewise, works tirelessly to bring liberation to those who were oppressed by the law, showing them that salvation comes not through obedience to the law but through faith in Jesus.
Black Theology
Black theology is a branch of theology that emerged in the 1960s as a response to the racial injustices and discrimination experienced by African Americans in the United States. Black theology seeks to interpret Christianity from the perspective of African American experiences and struggles and to address the black community's unique spiritual and social needs.
One of the pioneers of Black theology was Howard Thurman, a Baptist minister, theologian, and civil rights leader. Thurman was born in 1899 in Florida and grew up in a segregated society. He studied at Morehouse College and then at Rochester Theological Seminary, where he was one of the few African American students. Thurman became a pastor and an influential theologian, authoring several books on spirituality and social justice.
Thurman's theology was heavily influenced by his experiences as a black man in a racist society. He believed Christianity could provide strength and comfort for African Americans struggling against discrimination and oppression. Thurman emphasized the importance of spiritual practices such as prayer and meditation to connect with God and find inner peace.
Thurman's most famous book, "Jesus and the Disinherited," was published in 1949 and became a foundational text for Black theology. In the book, Thurman argues that Jesus was himself a member of an oppressed minority group and that his teachings and actions were meant to uplift and empower the marginalized. Thurman emphasized the importance of identifying with the struggles of the oppressed and working toward social justice in the name of Christ.
Another important figure in the development of Black theology was James Cone. Cone was born in Arkansas in 1938 and grew up in a segregated society. He studied at Philander Smith College and then at Garrett-Evangelical Theological Seminary, where he earned his Ph.D. Cone went on to become a professor of theology at Union Theological Seminary in New York City.
The Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power Movement of the 1960s heavily influenced Cone's theology. He believed that Christianity had been co-opted by white supremacy and that it needed to be reclaimed as a tool for liberation for African Americans. Cone argued that Black theology needed to be grounded in the experiences and struggles of the black community and that it needed to be focused on social justice and the liberation of oppressed peoples.
Cone's most famous book, "Black Theology and Black Power," was published in 1969 and became a landmark text for Black theology. In the book, Cone argues that the central message of Christianity is one of liberation and that God is on the side of the oppressed. Cone emphasized the importance of black identity and black pride in the struggle for social justice and argued that African Americans needed to be able to define themselves on their own terms.
Cone also developed the concept of "Black Christology", which argues that Jesus symbolizes the black struggle for liberation. Cone believed that Jesus was himself a victim of oppression and that his message was one of solidarity with the oppressed. Cone argued that the black community could find strength and inspiration in the figure of Jesus as a symbol of resistance against white supremacy. James Cone stated, “The cross can heal and hurt; it can be empowering and liberating but also enslaving and oppressive. There is no one way in which the cross can be interpreted. I offer my reflections because I believe that the cross placed alongside the lynching tree can help us to see Jesus in America in a new light, and thereby empower people who claim to follow him to take a stand against white supremacy and every kind of injustice.”
Black theology emerged as a response to the racial injustices and discrimination experienced by African Americans in the United States. Howard Thurman and James Cone were both influential figures in the development of Black theology, emphasizing the importance of spirituality and social justice in the liberation struggle. Thurman emphasized the importance of spiritual practices to connect with God and find inner peace. At the same time, Cone argued that Christianity needed to be reclaimed as a tool for liberation for African Americans. Both Thurman and Cone emphasized the importance of identifying with the struggles of the oppressed and working toward social justice in the name of Christ. The legacy of Black theology continues to inspire social justice movements.
What is a Black Messiah
The Black Messiah is a term that has been used to describe various figures throughout history who have been seen as messianic figures within the Black community. The concept of the Black Messiah has been used to symbolize hope and liberation for African Americans in the face of oppression and injustice.
The term "messiah" comes from the Hebrew word "moshiach," which means "anointed one." In Judaism faith, the term refers to a prophesied leader who will restore the nation of Israel to its former glory. In Christianity, the term refers to Jesus Christ, who is seen as the savior of humanity. Various cultures and religions have used the concept of the messiah has been used by various cultures and religions throughout history to describe a powerful and transformative leader who will bring about change and salvation.
The concept of the Black Messiah has been a powerful symbol of hope and liberation for the Black community throughout history. According to James Cone, a theologian and scholar of Black liberation theology, the Black Messiah is "the symbol of black people's ultimate liberation from white oppression and a source of strength for the struggle against racism and injustice." The Black Messiah represents a figure who will lead the Black community to liberation and empowerment and has been seen as a response to systemic oppression and racism.
20th-Century Black Messiahs
Adam Clayton Powell, Sr. was a prominent leader of the Black Social Gospel movement who made a significant contribution to the cause of social justice and the fight against systemic oppression. He was a Baptist minister who oversaw one of the nation's biggest and most influential black churches, the Abyssinian Baptist Church in Harlem. Powell was firmly committed to the tenets of the Black Social Gospel, which strongly emphasized addressing structural injustice and promoting social change from a Christian perspective. He believed that Christians had a moral duty to confront injustice and work towards a more just society, and he saw the church as a vehicle for social change. Powell was a fervent supporter of civil rights and was instrumental in advancing anti-discrimination legislation and the integration of housing and the workforce.
The Son of Adam Clayton Powell, Sr., Adam Clayton Powell, Jr., would go on to become a U.S. congressman. Jr. would build upon his father’s legacy of advocacy and the Black Social Gospel. He would carry the Black Social Gospel movement from “Protest to Politics.” Powell, Jr. stated, “I believe that Christianity in the United States has been dragging its feet, and I don't think there's any other force in America that has been more detrimental to the solution of our racial problems than Christianity.”
The Most famous leader of the Black Social Gospel is Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. The Black Social Gospel's principles, which placed a strong emphasis on confronting systemic injustice and pushing for social change through a Christian lens, had a significant impact on Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Being a Baptist minister, King's activism and desire for a more just and equitable society were greatly influenced by his faith. King believed that Christians had a duty to combat systemic oppression and work towards a more just and equitable society. He saw the fight for civil rights as a moral issue. He believed Christians had a moral duty to stand up for what was right, even in the face of opposition, and that the church could serve as a catalyst for social change.
King's adaptation of the Black Social Gospel was based on the core values of nonviolence and peaceful demonstrations. He adhered to Gandhi's teachings and those of other nonviolent activists because he thought that social change could be accomplished peacefully. King's activism went beyond civil rights to include economic justice and peace concerns, and he recognized the connections between these issues. He was a vocal opponent of the Vietnam War and a strong supporter of fair labor laws and workers' rights. King was a powerful force for social change and a key player in the civil rights movement because of his dedication to the Black Social Gospel's tenets. Activists and supporters of social justice are still motivated by his legacy today.
Manifesting King’s Dream
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.'s book, Where Do We Go From Here: Chaos or Community, was released in 1967, the year before he was assassinated. The book, a compilation of essays and speeches King gave in his final years, explores issues of racial and economic justice, nonviolence, and the need for a strong sense of community.
King acknowledges the many victories that had been won, including the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, as the book opens by examining the progress that had been made in the civil rights movement up to that point. To truly achieve racial and economic justice, he does note that there is still much work to be done. King contends that the fight for justice is a fight for all marginalized and oppressed people, not just for African Americans. He focuses on the importance of solidarity and unity across racial and economic lines and discusses the need to create a “beloved community” where everyone is treated with respect and dignity.
One of the book's main themes is the value of nonviolence and the necessity to reject violence as a strategy for bringing about social change. King writes:
“The greatest blasphemy of the whole ugly process was that the white man ended up making God his partner in the exploitation of the Negro. What greater heresy has religion known? Ethical Christianity vanished, and the moral nerve of religion was atrophied. This terrible distortion sullied the essential nature of Christianity.”
King acknowledges how white evangelical Christians used religion as a weapon. The point can be seen when early white enslavers and segregationists preached Ephesians, which stated, “Bondservants, obey your earthly masters with fear and trembling, with a sincere heart, as you would Christ, not by way of eye-service, as people-pleasers, but as bondservants of Christ, doing the will of God from the heart, rendering service with a good will as to the Lord and not to man, knowing that whatever good anyone does, this he will receive back from the Lord, whether he is a bondservant or is free. Masters, do the same to them, and stop your threatening, knowing that he who is both their Master and yours is in heaven, and that there is no partiality with him.”
King contends that using nonviolence to effect long-lasting change is both a moral requirement and an effective tactic. He thinks that using nonviolent resistance to confront structural oppression and create a more just and equitable society can be a very effective strategy.
King's vision for the future, thus creating a “World House” where everyone is treated with respect and dignity and genuine racial and economic justice, is presented as the book's epilogue. Even though he knows the road ahead will be challenging, he is still confident that the fight for justice will ultimately succeed. King writes:
“This is the great new problem of mankind. We have inherited a large house, a great ‘world house’ in which we have to live together — Black and white, easterner and westerner, gentile and Jew, Catholic and Protestant, Muslim and Hindu — a family unduly separated in ideas, culture and interest, who, because we can never again live apart, must learn somehow to live with each other in peace.”
Earlier in King’s life, He wrote a paper entitled Religion's Answer to the Problem of Evil.
King writes:
“In a world where good is to be achieved, there must be freedom. This is most obvious in the case of man. In reality, the whole idea of morality and religion presupposes the existence of freedom. Thomas Huxley once said that “If some great power would agree to make me think always what is true and do what is right on condition of being turned into a sort of clock, I should instantly close with the bargain. The only freedom I care about is the freedom to do right; the freedom to do wrong I am ready to part with.”
As King alludes to, “In a world where good is to be achieved, there must be freedom. Today, we are still fighting for the write of Freedom. Earlier this year, Following a fatal school shooting in Nashville, Tennessee, Republicans attempted to expel two Democratic state legislators in retaliation for their participation in a protest demanding more gun control. Reps. Justin Jones and Justin Pearson, both of whom are Black, were expelled and later reinstated. This incident shows the transition from “Protest to Politics” in the modern Black Social Gospel Movement. Today, the Black Social Gospel has expanded past the church walls and can be seen in the streets, legislature, and community outreach. Individuals like Jamal Bryant, Otis Moss, III, and Joseph Walker, III, have all pressed forward using the Black Social Gospel. There is a connection to be discovered between the black community and our inherent connection with Christ. While many see fit to give Christianity the name of “A white man’s religion,” The Black Social Gospel shows that is clearly not true. The ability of African Americans to take an oppressive weapon and use that weapon as a tool to fight the same issues that once hindered us is simply unprecedented. It has been used as a model for numerous other social justice issues in the United States.
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